A stoneage man in the iron age

ISHI IN THE MODERN WORLD–THE CAPTURE

Early on the morning of August 29, 1911, barking dogs woke up a group of butchers at a slaughter house in Oroville California. When the butchers investigated, they discovered the dogs had cornered a native american man against a corral fence. They called the local sheriff, named Webber, who took the man into custody. Ishi offered no resistance to capture and quietly allowed himself to be handcuffed and taken to jail. He was taken by wagon to Oroville jail and locked up in a cell for the insane. The sheriff wasn’t really sure what to do the the poor man, who appeared starved and terrified. He understood no english and noone knew his language. He wouldn’t eat because of his fear of being poisoned by the white men and expected to be put to death at any moment. His only clothing was a ragged piece of ancient covered wagon canvas worn as a poncho over his shoulders.

HIS HOME IN THE MUSEUM AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

The newspapers in California immediately carried the story of the capture of the last wild indian in California. In 1901, Phoebe Apperson Hearst, one of the regents of the University of California, helped establish a museum, and a department of Anthropology. Two of the anthropologists (Waterman and Kroeber) read the newspaper accounts and immediately made arrangements with authorities to bring the wild indian to the University in San Francisco. They recognized that this man was probably from the tribe of Yahi who were now thought to be extinct. Professor Waterman left the same day by train for Oroville. He described the man he found in jail as the last stone age man in America. He was taken by train back to San Francisco. As a child Ishi had seen trains hundreds of times bellowing and belching through the valley. As a child he was frightened of this sight. Ishi’s mother explained that it was a living Demon who followed white men wherever they went, but that they didn’t need to fear it. It is fun to imagine what feelings Ishi must have had as he rode the train on that fateful day. The train literally carried this man from the stone age to the new world. To quote from the Book “Ishi in Two Worlds”: It was eleven o’clock in the evening of Labor Day, September 4, 1911 when Ishi the Yahi completed a trip out of the Stone Age into the clang and glare of the Iron Age—a place of clocks and hours and a calender; of money and labor and pay; of government authority; of newspapers and business. Now he, too, was a modern man, a city dweller with a street address.” (Ishi in Two Worlds by Theodora Kroeber, pp. 119-120). The museum had a nice room on the ground floor for native americans to stay when visiting the museum to help with studies. This became Ishi’s permanent home. Professor A. L. Kroeber said his first impressions of Ishi was of his “gentleness, and of a timidity and fear kept under severe control”. In the beginning Ishi would become almost incapacitated by fear when surrounded by a group of people. Ishi had an innate understanding that he was profoundly alone and different from anyone else. “I am one” you, and everyone else were “others”. He was extremely uncomfortable touching others, especially with the frequent greeting of shaking hands, but would eventually be able to do this, but would never initiate a hand shake. His demeanor was very gentle and polite, especially to females, and always wore a pleasant smile. He was naturally very aloof but also very outgoing and fascinated with the new world in which he found himself.

ISHI RECEIVES HIS NAME:

It was culturally inappropriate for a tribe member to speak one’s own name, and he would never reveal his own, private, Yahi name. But people had to call him something, other than “the wild man of Oroville”. Kroeber finally declared that he would be called “Ishi”, which means “man” in the Yahi tongue. Ishi would accept this as his name, although he would never be heard to pronounce it again.

ISHI’S DEMONSTRATIONS

Beside working privately with university professors and anthropologists, Ishi would begin giving open houses in one of the larger rooms in the museum. On Sunday evenings Ishi would meet with the public. Mrs. Kroeber’s book describes these evenings: “Usually Ishi demonstrated stringing a bow, or he made fire with the fire drill, or he turned out a chipped arrowhead while the visitors watched. The chipping became the favorite demonstration because Ishi would afterward graciously present the finished arrowhead to someone in the audience. Soon the demand for Ishi-made arrowheads became burdensome to him, and they were given only to school or museum collections.” (page 136 from Mrs. Kroebers book). Other than his receptions, and his work with the University, Ishi went freely about his business and he made many friends at the University and among local businesses. One event is very interesting: Professor Waterman had been telling Ishi about the ocean beach, and Ishi was very interesting to see the ocean. He had known of the ocean for a very long time, but had never seen it. One Sunday, soon after Ishi arrived in San Francisco, Waterman took him on an automobile ride through golden Gate Park and to the ocean beach. “The car stopped on the bluff above the Cliff House, giving onto a wide view of ocean, surf and beach, Ishi’s breath drew in, not because of the great rolling Pacific, but because of the thousands of people who covered the beach below and spilled over into the surf-a Sunday afternoon crowd on a rare warm September day. He said over and over softly, half-whisperingly, Hansi saltu, hansi saltu! Many white people, many white people! He had not known so many people could inhabit the earth at one time. The shock of sheer numbers obliterated every other impression” (pp. 138-130 Mrs. Kroeber’s book). Later when Ishi would visit theatres with friends it was noted that he would often watch the audience with astonishment and pay scant attention to the performance. ISHI’S EMPLOYMENT Providing for Ishi’s financial needs became a concern. His needs were small, but it was becoming a burden on the professors to continue to provide for his meals, clothing, etc. The problem was resolved when it was noted that beside his public demonstrations, Ishi had also begun to help the janitors clean up the museum in the evenings. It was decided to begin paying him a wage to meet his needs. Ishi would receive a check from the University. He had been taught to sign his name (He practiced his signature for 15 minutes every day for over a week) and Ishi would then take his check to a friendly storekeeper who would exchange his signed check for $25 in silver money, which Ishi was very proud of.

ISHI’S FRIENDS

Ishi’s friendly, shy personality won him many friends. He would develop friendships with museum employees, local shop owners where he bargained for and bought his modern treasures, and he had many friends among the medical staff in the building next to the museum. His first and closest friend was the anthropologist that picked him up in Oroville. His name was Thomas Waterman. He was the first to converse with him, however haltingly, in Yana. It was in Waterman’s home that Ishi was introduced to the culture of 1900 America. Ishi’s second friend was Alfred Kroeber. He was the antropologist in charge of teaching and research in the museum. His third close friend was Doctor Saxton Pope. He met Ishi about a year after Ishi came to the school. He had been appointed to the teaching staff at the universities medical school, next door to the museum. One day Pope glanced out a window and saw Ishi fashioning a bow on the grounds behind the museum. He joined him so he could observe his work. He got Ishi to show him his shooting stance, his hold and method of release. Pope and Ishi spent a great deal of time learning together and testing bows from the museums collections. Ishi also became close to an assistant curator named Guifford and the janitorial staff that he spent many hours working with. Ishi made friends with Juan Dolores in 1908. Juan was a was a Papago Navajo Indian who befriended Ishi. He was the friend who finally persuaded Ishi to begin wearing shoes.

A STONE AGE MAN LIVING IN THE IRON AGE:

Ishi was fascinated by many modern inventions, but not all things were that impressive. With the money from his cleaning salary he would shop in the local stores. He bought treasures like a penny whistle, or a kaleidoscope. He was impressed with modern houses, because of the protection from the cold and weather. “He liked chairs and beds and tables and chests and towels and blankets. Running water and flush toilets were not only good, they were very, very clever, as amusing, but less intriguing and genuinely interesting than the penny whistle and the kaleidoscope. Matches were one of civilization’s true delights, rated far above gas and electricity.” (Ishi in Two Worlds-page165) In 1911 Ishi was invited to see Harry Fowler take off from Golden Gate Park on a flight across the continent. When the plane rose into the air, Ishi turned to Waterman and asked with raised eyebrows: “Saltu?”, “White man up there?” Seemingly unimpressed. Ishi found many of modern mans wonders to be unimpressive. An aeroplane was not nearly as impressive as a hawk or an eagle in the air. Cars were not as impressive as trolley cars and neither could compare to the train. Maybe because the train has significance in his childhood memories. The window shade that could disappear and then reappear by pulling it down was “one of life’s surprises never to be taken for granted”. “Door knobs, safety pins, and typewriters he regarded with quiet hilarity”. Ishi even received a letter from a woman names “Fannie” She expressed an interest in marriage. She sent pictures and letters, but Ishi was not persuaded.

MAKING TOOLS AND WEAPONS:

After arriving at the museum, Ishi manufactured stone age tools and began demonstrating many of the skills that were part of the stone-age culture. Following are some descriptions of some of the toolmaking techniques: “For a supplementary prying and splitting implement Ishi used a blunt-ended piece of strong bone. This he placed against the boulder from which he wished to remove pieces without breaking the whole. By letting the bone receive the blow from the hammerstone, he was able to remove flake after flake, and if he so wished, to fashion a core into a tool...He knew how to grind down and fashion the basaltic rock of Lassen into manos, mortars or pestles which women used for pounding and grinding acorns and seeds. For his own use he made wood-hafted scrapers and knives of bone, obsidian, or chert, and he kept at hand some sharp cutting blades...His kit, accumulated within a few weeks of his coming to the museum, resembled closely the tools and treasures which he had been accustomed to own: bone awls of different sizes, bone and antler flakers small and large, bone harpoon points, scrapers, ad pendants and beads made of clam, abalone, and Olivella shells.” “He made rope from native hemp or milkweed, very strong, this was for use in climbing cliffs. He also made a lighter rope, as well as string and thread of thin deer sinew; string intended for use in sewing or for bowstrings was as fine as many strippings of it through the teeth could make it. (Ishi in two worlds pp. 180-181) The first step in making an obsidian tool was the ”breaking up of the original obsidian mass, usually a boulder the size of a small loaf of bread. Ishi used his blunt-end bone tool, placing it where, when struck with the hammerstone, it would trim off a large piece without shattering the whole boulder. To get smaller pieces for arrowpoints, he struck the obsidian mass directly with he hammerstone...For the actual shaping of the arrow or spear point, Ishi used a flint flaker, probably the first toolmaking tool...It consisted of a straight wooden handle exactly the length of the distance from Ishi’s elbow to his extended middle finger, the handle tipped with a piece of deer antler...the butt of the handle he held against his ribs with his elbow, to give steadiness and a fulcrum. The right hand grasped the other end of the scraper, close to its point, while in the left hand, protected with a double piece of buckskin, was held the sliver of obsidian selected for finishing, a piece two to four inches long, one to one and a half inch wide and about a quarter of an inch thick, the fingers keeping it vertical to the flaker...Ishi now began the “pressure finishing,” pressing upon the lower edge of the unworked piece evenly and with increasing force downward and outward, in a scarcely perceptible motion...then a minute fragment of obsidian would detach itself...he dislodged flake after flake, applying pressure at adjacent points and turning the piece from side to side, establishing the basic outline of the weapon...He changed to finer flaking tool so that in the finishing and noticing, he would not break off the stem...If occasionally happened, a small piece of glass flew into one of his eyes, Ishi at once pulled down the lower lid of the eye, while, with the right hand he slapped himself vigorously on the top of the head...to dislodge the glass fragment.” (Ishi in two worlds pp. 184) Ishi demonstrated firemaking with a drill (buckeye, sage or hard wood), a flat base (willow or cedar) with a hole for the drill and a groove to guide the heated ash into the tinder (dried moss or thistle down) placed under the groove in the base. The drill is spun between the palms while applying downward pressure. Heating the wood and creating ash that flows from the hole to the groove and into the tinder. Then gently blown into flame. (Ishi in two worlds pp. 185-187) Ishi fished with the weir, seine, fish hook, line, rod, and harpoon (thrusting, not throwing harpoon). While in hiding he had to use methods that would leave no evidence for anyone else to discover. The bows that Ishi made while in the wild were made of mountain juniper. The face of the bow was away from the sap and the back of the bow was always closest to the sap of the branch. The bows were fashioned to fit the person who would shoot it. The bows length was the distance from the right hip joint to he left finger tips, with the left arm extended forward straight out from the shoulder. The width of the bow would be 4 fingers for a powerful bow. 3 fingers for a light hunting bow. Once blocked out, the bow-to-be was placed for seasoning where it would be constantly warm and damp. It always lay face up. The bow was always laid horizontally, carried and shot face up. After finishing the carving the finishing of the bow was done with sandstone. The recurve symmetry was accomplished by working the end to be shaped back and forth over a heated stone until the wood was pliable, then by pressing it against the curve of his bent knee, protected with a pad of buckskin., and holding it there with a steady pressure until the wood was entirely cool, by which time the curve was “fixed”. Ishi stripped sinew from the tendons of the hind legs of deer, and the finer tendons from the shanks of deer. These were soaked and chewed to work out the threads. After preparation, the tendons would become flat parchment-like strips. Thin and even, which were glued to the back of the bow, strip after strip to build up the bows resistance and strength. The glue was made by boiling salmon skin. The smaller shank tendons were shredded by pulling them through the teeth repeatedly until they would become as fine as silk thread. These were spun into a continuous bow string. The bow would be seasoned in the sun for days or weeks and then polished with sandstone before stringing was ever done. To string the bow Ishi would lash the string to the upper nock. He seated himself, placing the upper nock behind his left heel, the belly of the bow upward in his left hand. In this position, he bent the bow and fastened the string about the nock of the lower limb. Ishi preferred a 40 lb. draw at 25 inches. Ishi’s preferred bow cover was mountain lion tail, but a piece of buckskin could be used. When not in use it had to be laid flat and not left standing. He preferred arrow shafts of straight stems of hazel. The arrow shaft was first peeled of its bark, then irregularities straightened by rolling over heated rocks, after which it was smoothed with sandstone and polished on the naked, thigh. The shaft length was the base of the breast bone to the extended index finger, with the arm in shooting position. Many of Ishi’s arrows were made with foreshafts. The foreshafts were secured with resin or glue. Ishi preferred eagle feathers for fletching. Each set from a single feather. The 3 feathers were slanted slightly to give a spin for shorter distances rather than a straight feather for speed and distance. Ishi was a skilled hunter. If he sensed an animal (large or small) he would hide sometime for hours for the animal to get close enough for a killing shot. From 5 yards to 40 yards. He would use camouflage and was expert in calling in game of many kinds. He preferred luring and ambushing game over stalking. Even wearing a stuffed deer head or imitating a faun in distress to lure deer to his bow. Ishi was a story teller. Pope said that Ishi had shared at least 40 tales from oral tradition of the Yahi people.

RETURN TO DEER CREEK:

In May 2014 Ishi led a university group back to Deer Creek, to his old home. Waterman, Kroeber, Pope and popes 11 year old son Saxton were in the group along with a small crew. They traveled by train to Vina and then took pack horses into the canyons. They would revert to stone age culture and hunt with home made bows and salmon harpoons. They told stories and Ishi taught 11 year old Saxton Jr. to dance with him the simple stamping step of the Yahi circle dance to the rhythmic clapping of hands supplementing Ishi’s song and rattle. Ishi would not take Pope hunting until they had stopped smoking for 2 days and purified themselves, so the game would not be able to smell them.

The trip was spectacularly successful. Ishi was able to demonstrate traditional culture without the limitations of trying to explain in broken english and half comprehended Yana, concepts such as stalking a deer, its evisceration and skinning, harpooning a salmon, or techniques of climbing up and down perpendicular canyon walls without being seen from any direction. Or swimming in swift deep waters, and dozens of other every day routines of Yana life. Each day they would move to a new camp and learned how the small group of survivors had remained concealed for 11 years. They rediscovered the hidden trails and favorite hunting areas and the places of tragic massacres.

ISHI’S DEATH:

In December of 2014 Ishi developed a hacking cough. He seemed to recover by spring. He had good and bad times, but his health continued to decline. In March 25 2016 Ishi died. Theodora’s book ends with the following thoughts by his friend Doctor Pope:

“And so, stoic and unafraid, departed the last wild indian of America. He closes a chapter in history. He looked upon us as sophisticated children–smart, but not wise. We knew many things, and much that is false. He knew nature, which is always true. His were the qualities of character that last forever. He was kind; he had courage and self-restraint, and though all had been taken from him, there was no bitterness in his heart. His soul was that of a child, his mind that of a philosopher.”